Srivijaya was an ancient Malay kingdom on the island of Sumatra which influenced much of the Malay Archipelago. The earliest solid proof of its existence is from the 7th century; The Chinese monk I-Tsing wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 for 6 months; the Kedukan Bukit Inscription is dated 683. The kingdom ceased to exist between 1200s and 1300s due to various factors, including the expansion of Majapahit. In Sanskrit, sri means 'shining' or 'radiant' and vijaya means victory or excellence.

After it fell it was largely forgotten, and Europeans had never really learned of it so never considered that a large united kingdom could have been present in South-east Asia. The existence of Srivijaya was only formally suspected in 1918 when French historian George Coedès of École française d'Extrême-Orient postulated the existence of the empire. Around 1992 and 1993, Pierre-Yves Manguin proved that the center of Srivijaya was along the Musi River in between Bukit Seguntang and Sabokingking (situated in what is now the province of South Sumatra, Indonesia).

Historiography and legacy

There is no continous knowledge of Srivijaya in Indonesian histories, its forgotten past has been recreated by foreign scholars. No modern Indonesians, including those of the Palembang area around which the kingdom was based, had heard of Srivijaya until the 1920s, when French scholar, George Coedès, published his discoveries and interpretations in Dutch and Indonesian-language newspapers. Coedès noticed that the Chinese references to "Sanfoqi" previously read as "Sribhoja", and the inscriptions in Old Malay refer to the same empire.

Srivijaya became a symbol of early Sumatran greatness, and a great empire to balance Java's Majapahit in the east. Both empires were used by nationalist intellectuals to support an Indonesian identity within and Indonesian state prior to the Dutch colonial state.

Srivijaya and by extension Sumatra had been known by different names by different peoples. The Chinese called it Sanfotsi or San Fo Qi and at one time even an older kingdom of Kantoli that could be considered as the predecessor of Srivijaya. In Sanskrit and Pali, it was referred to Yavadesh and Javadeh respectively. The Arab called it Zabag and the Khmer called it Melayu. This is another reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult.

Formation and Growth

Little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains. According to the Kedukan Bukit Inscription, the empire of Srivijaya was founded by Dapunta Hyang Çri Yacanaca (Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa). He led 20,000 troops (mainly land troopers and a few hundred ships) from Minanga Tamwan (speculated to be Minangkabau) to Palembang, Jambi, and Bengkulu.

The empire was a coastal trading center and was a thalassocracy. As such, it did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia, with the exception of contributing to the population of Madagascar 3,300 miles to the west. Around year 500, Srivijayan roots begun to develop around present-day Palembang, Sumatra, in modern day Indonesia. The empire was organised in three main zones — the estuarine capital region centered on Palembang, the Musi River basin which served as hinterland and rival estuarine areas capable of forming rival power centres. The areas upstream of the river were rich in various commodities valuable to Chinese traders. The capital was administered directly by the ruler while the hinterland remained under its own local datus or chiefs who were organized into a network of allegiance to the Srivijaya maharaja or king. Force was the dominant element in the empire's relations with rival river systems such as the Batang Hari which centered in Jambi. The ruling lineage intermarried with the Sailendras of Central Java.

Under the leadership of Jayanasa, the kingdom of Malayu became the first kingdom to be integrated into the Srivijayan Empire. This possibly occurred in the 680s. Malayu, also known as Jambi, was rich in gold and was held in high prestige. Srivijaya saw the submission of Malayu to them would increase their own prestige.

Chinese records dated late 7th century mention two Sumatran kingdoms as well as three other kingdoms on Java being part of Srivijaya. By the end of the 8th century, many Javanese kingdoms like Tarumanagara and Holing were under Srivijayan sphere of influence. It has also been recorded that a Buddhist family related to Srivijaya was dominating central Java. The family was probably the Sailendra. According to Kota Kapur Inscription, the empire conquered Southern Sumatra up to Lampung. The empire thus grew to control the trade on the Strait of Malacca, South China Sea and Karimata Strait.

During the same century, Langkasuka on the Malay Peninsula became part of Srivijaya. Soon later, Pan Pan and Trambralinga, which were located north of Langkasuka came under Srivijayan influence. These kingdoms on the peninsula were major trading nations that transported goods across the peninsula's isthmus.

With the expansion to Java as well as the Malay Peninsula, Srivijaya controlled two major trade choke points in Southeast Asia. Some Srivijayan temple ruins are observable in Thailand, Cambodia and on the Malay Peninsula.

Sometimes in the 7th century, Cham ports in eastern Indochina started to attract traders. This diverted the flow of trade from Srivijaya. In effort to redivert the flow, the Srivijayan king or maharaja Dharmasetu launched various raids against the coastal cities of Indochina. The city of Indrapura by the Mekong River was temporarily controlled from Palembang in early 8th century. The Srivijayan continued to dominate areas around modern day Cambodia until the Khmer King Jayavarman II, the founder of the Khmer Empire dynasty, severed the Srivijayan link later in the same century.

After Dharmasetu, Samaratungga became the next Maharaja of Srivijaya. He reigned as ruler from 792 to 835. Unlike the expansionist Dharmasetu, Samaratuga did not indulged in military expansion but rather, he preferred to strengthen Srivijayan hold of Java. He personally oversaw the construction of Borobudur; the temple was completed in 825, during his reign.